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Unit -1
INDIAN FEDERAL SYSTEM
Unit Structure
1.1Objectives
1.2Introduction
1.3Meaning and Definition
1.4Characteristics of Indian Federalism
1.1OBJECTIVES:
To study and understand the concept of federalism.
To understand the difference between Union and Federal
governments
To understand the Nature of Federalism
To understand main features of Indian Federalism
1.2INTRODUCTION:
Federalism is a type of government in which the power is
divided between the national government and other government al
units. It contrasts with a unitary government, in which central
authority holds the power and a confederation, in which state for
example are clearly dominant. That is why the unitary and federal
government isthe most popular form of political administ ration. In
unitary form of governments, all the powers are concentrated in
national government. The regional or provincial units derive their
power from national government. Whereas, in a federal system of
government the power have been divided between cen tral and
federating units or states. The power in a federal government is
divided by the constitution itself, and both in their respective
jurisdiction independently. Norway, China, Britain, France, Japan,
Italy, Belgium, Sweden, Spain etc. are some of the examples of the
unitary government. Whereas, Brazil, Russia, Canada, Argentina,
Switzerland, Australia, US are some of the examples of the federal
form of government.
It depends up to the administrative and political suitability of a
country to adopt fe deral or unitary model of polity. However, India
has adopted a mixed model comprising the best features from bothmunotes.in
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types of systems. The very first Article 1 of the Indian constitution
terms, ‘India, that is Bharat shall be the union of the states.’ Thus
the constitution describes India, as the ‘Union of States’. According
to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, ‘the phrase ‘Union of States’ have been
preferred to ‘Federation of States’ to indicate two things:
(a)the Indian federation is not the results of an agreement among
the states like the American federation,
(b)The state has no right no right to secede from the federation.
The federation is union because it is indestructible.i
That is why it is regarded as a ‘quasi -federal’ country. It is
federal in form because of duel governments at at centre and state,
duel legislature being Indian parliament and states legislature but
unitary in spirit for having single constitution, citizenship, judiciary,
role of governor etc.
1.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION:
The Indian federal system is based on Canadian model and not
on American model.iiSome of the leading experts of Indian
constitution have defined the Indian federal system as under:
1.Dr. B. R. Ambedkar observed that, ‘the constitution if a Federal
constitution in as much as it esta blishes a duel polity. The Union is
not a league of states, united in a loose relationship, nor are the
states the agencies of the union deriving powers from it’.iii
2.K. C. Where described the constitution of Indian, ‘Quasi Federal’.
Further, he remarked tha t, ‘Indian Union is a unitary state with
subsidiary federal features rather than a federal state with
subsidiary unitary features.’iv
Thus, Indian federalism is an unique blend of the federal and
unitary ideas. Granville Austin called the Indian federalism
as‘cooprative federalism’.vA new kind of federation to meet India’s
peculiar needs.
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN FEDERAL
SYSTEM:
The federal system in India has been adopted mainly due to its
large size, social -cultural diversity and needs of the pe ople across
the length and width of the nation. Following points can be
enumerated as the salient features of the Indian federalism:munotes.in
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1.Political Dualism:
Indian federal system makes of two levels of political authority.
The first level is federal of Centr e and then the states as a
peripheral or federating unit at provincial levels. The central
government is custodian of national sovereignty, whereas the state
governments look after the local and regional matters of law and
order, development, civic facilit ies etc. The central government is
run by the council of ministers, headed by the prime minister. At the
state level it is done by the council of ministers, headed by the chief
minister. The president of India is the head of the country, whereas
the govern or nominated by him heads the states. There is a union
parliament to discharge legislative functions at central level and
legislative assemblies for the states. Thus, Indian polity is designed
as duel polity for structural and functional purposes.
2.Divisi on of Power:
In a federal system of government, it is necessary to divide the
power between centre and state governments. The constitution of
India has very clearly divided the legislative, administrative and
financial powers. The list of legislative po wers between centre and
state are divided as the Union list, State list, Concurrent list and
Residuary powers. Administrative machinery is jointly as well as
separately looked after by the staff of All India Services and State
Government officers. The allocation of financial resources is done
as per the guideline of the finance commission of India, which is a
Constitution body.
3.Bicameralism:
The Indian parliamentary system is inspired by the Westminster
model (British Parliament), which provides of two chambers in
parliament. In Britain it is known as the House of lords (Upper
House) and House of Commons (Lower house). In India also we
have Upper House (Rajysabha) and Lower house (Loksabha). The
members of the Lok sabha are directly elected by the peopl e.
However, the members of the Rajysabha are elected by the state
assemblies for respective states. At the state level there is
provision of a assembly, with exception of a few states with a
bicameral arrangements, i.e. Maharashtra, UP, Bihar, Andhra
Prade sh, Telangana Karnataka and erstwhile state of Jammu and
Kashmir. Under Article 169 of the Constitution, the parliament may
by a law create or abolish the legislative council of a state, if the
state assembly also passes such resolution. In 1986 the Assemb ly
of Tamil Nadu state has abolished the legislative council of the
state.
4.Strong Centre:
The federal system of India has a federal character with unitary
bias. The balance of power between both is clearly tilted in favour
of the Union government. Throug h Legislative, Executive andmunotes.in
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Financial controls the Union government dominates the power and
will of the states, i.e. Role of Governor, list of legislative powers,
Role of All India Services officers, Finance Commission, NITI ayog
etc.
5.Integrated and In dependent Judiciary:
The constitution p rovides for establishment of an independent
judiciary. It is single integrated institution, without any federal
features. The apex judiciary that is Supreme Court of India heads
all the judicial institutions. Right fr om District or Session court to
High Court to Supreme Court the judicial system functions as one
single hierarchy. The judiciary has got the power to review and
interpret the Constitution. It settles the disputes between the states
and centre or between th e states. Judges are secured from any
kind of political or administrative interference. They enjoy fixed
tenure and perks as per the Constitutional guideline. Hence they
act freely and fearlessly.
6.No Equality of states representation:
In US the princi ple pf equality of representation of states in the
Upper house is fully recognized. Thus the American senate has
100 members, two from each state. This principle is not followed in
India, neither in Upper House nor in lower house. Indian
Constitution provi des for representation on the grounds of
population. That is why we have states like Sikkim with single
member in Lok Sabha and UP with 80 members. At the same time
there representation in the Rajya Sabha also varies, as per the
strength of the state assem bly. Therefore, the principle of equality
are not followed. We have followed more practical method of
quantifying the demography over geography as the principle of
representation for the states.
Check Your Progress: -
1.Explain the concept of Union and F ederal governments.
2.What are the main characteristics of Indian Federal system?munotes.in
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II. Centre -State Relations in India
Chapter Scheme:
1.Introduction
2.Legislative Relations
3.Administrative relations
4.Financial Relations
5.Conclusion
Introduc tion:
The constitution of India is federal in nature with unitary bias. It
has carefully laid down the procedure of separation of Legislative,
Administrative and Financial power between centre and state.
However, there is no separation of Judicial power. H ence, India has
a single integrated judiciary. The centre and state are given full
liberty in their areas of functions. But in case of any excess or
violation of the constitution it is possible to restrict them. Thus, the
constitution provides a detailed r oadmap for the conduct of the
centre -state relation in India. The centre -state relations can be
studied as follows:
Legislative Relations (Art. 245 to 255 of Part XI)
Administrative Relations (Art. 256 to 263 of Part XI)
Financial Relations (Art. 268 to 293 of Part XII)
The scheme for demarcation of powers through three list. The
union list details the subjects on which Parliament may make laws.
The state list gives details of subjects under state legislature and
the concurrent list has subjects in w hich both Parliament and state
legislature have jurisdiction. The constitution also provides primacy
to Parliament on concurrent list items. If there is a conflict, a central
law will override a state law.viStill there are laws enacted by the
Union Parliam ent which leads to conflict between the centre and
state. For example, the Right to free and compulsory Education
Act. Was passed by Parliament in 2009. The provision of financial
burden on states is a matter of concern and dispute. Another
challenge befor e the centre arises is of maintaining the uniformity of
law while implementing it in different states with different conditions.
The centre -state relationship, thus can be examined as under:
1.Legislative Relations (Art. 245 to 255 of Part XI) :
Article 2 45 to 255 of Part XI of the Indian Constitution provides
for the main provisions of the centre -state legislative relations.
Besides, these articles, there are other provisions as well regulating
this area. The Centre -state legislative relations cover th et e r r i t o r i a l
extent of this legislation. In that, the states have been authorized to
legislate within the territorial limit of that particular region. Also themunotes.in
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President of India and Governor of the state have power to direct
the government to not to appl y any particular law in the state.
It provides for distribution of the legislative subjects as:
(I)Union List: Parliament has exclusive powers to make laws with
respect to any of the matters enumerated in the list. The union list
has 100 items (originally 97) like defense , banking, foreign affairs,
atomic energy, communications, census etc. The state does not
have power to make laws in the union list. However, if any such
legislation required by more than two states, it can be represented
in Rajya Sabha fo r the purpose of making laws therein.
(II)State List: The state list has got 61 subjects (originally 66
subjects). ‘in normal circumstances’ the state has exclusive power
to make laws in this list. Sometimes in case of emergency, the
Union Parliament or the President of India through an ordinance
make a law in the state list also.
(III)Concurrent List: There are certain subject who is important
for both Centre and State governments. Such subjects have been
kept under the concurrent list. At present 52 subjects a re kept in
this list (originally 47 subjects).
Also there are provisions for Parliamentary legislation in the
state list, in cases of issue being a matter of national or
international importance or the subjects between two or more
states.
2.Administra tive Relations (Art. 256 to 263 of Part XI)
Art. 256 to 263 deals with the provisions of administrative
relations between the centre and the states. It has specifically
distributed the administrative power as following:
I.The state has absolute liberty over its administration, except in
case of ‘special circumstances’. The state has their own cadre of
staff, recruited for this purpose. Also the union government is duty
bound to manage the administrative affairs of central government,
with the help of All India Services officers.
II.As per Art. 365 of the constitution, the state are under obligation
to follow the central governments administrative guideline. Also, ‘if
the president is satisfied that the constitutional machinery in the
state has failed, thr ough a report of governor or otherwise’ he may
impose President rule under Art. 356 of the constitution.
III.Center may also issue directives and advisory to the states for
cooperating with the centre government and following the laws
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IV.As per Art. 263 the President can establish an inter -sate council
to investigate and discuss the subjects of common importance.
3.Financial Relations (Art. 268 to 293 of Part XII)
The financial powers of the centre are greater that those of the
states. However, th eextent of power to legislate laws is as
following:
I.The union Parliament has only got the power to levy taxes on the
subjects, which is mentioned in the list.
II.The state government can impose taxes on the subjects it deals
with state subjects only.
Neve rtheless, the clear cut division of sources of revenue
between the federal and the state governments makes each other
financially independent of each other. Therefore, the Constitution
has made elaborate provisions regarding distribution of the revenue
between centre and the states. They are as under:
1.Duties levied by the Union but Collected and appropriated
by the states:
Stamp duties and toilet preparations are levied by the
Government of India, collected and appropriated by the states,
within there t erritorial jurisdiction. Union territories are exempted
from such provisions under Art. 268.
2.Taxes Levied and Collected by the Union but Assigned to
the states, within which they are imposed. It includes Succession
duty on non -agricultural property, Esta te duty on non -agricultural
land, Terminal taxes on goods and passengers carried by railways,
air or sea.
3.Taxes Levied and collected by the union and distributed
between the union and the states: It aims at the equitable
distribution of the revenue. For example income tax -other than
agricultural income, excise duties as per Union list etc.
4.Surcharges :The parliament is however, authorized to levy
surcharge on the taxes mentioned above.
5.Grants in aid: Parliament may make grants in aid from the
consoli dated fund of India to such states as are in need of
assistance, particularly for the promotion of welfare of tribal areas,
including special grants to Assam.vii
6.Loans: The Union government may make loan to any state or
give guarantee with respect to loans raised by any states.munotes.in
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7.According to Art. 301, freedom of trade, commerce and
intercourse throughout the territory of India is guaranteed, but the
Parliament has the power to impose reasonable restrictions in
public interest.
Finance Commission: Althoug h the constitution has made efforts
to allocate every possible source of revenue either to the union or
the states. However, they are very broad classifications. Therefore,
the Constitution provides that, “Finance Commission is to be
constituted by the Pre sident every 5 years. The Chairman mast be
a person having ‘experience in public affairs’. other four members
must be appointed from amongst the following:
I.A Judge of High Court or any person who is qualified to be a
judge in a High Court.
II.A person havin g knowledge of the finances and accounts of the
government.
III.A person having work experience in financial matters and
administration.
IV.A person having special knowledge of economics.
Conclusion
The centre -state relations are at the core of the Indian
federal system. The centre and state governments are duty bound
to cooperate with each other in order to secure the welfare of the
people and give them a good government. The centre and states
work together in the matters like environment, education,
infrastructure development and welfare of the backward sections of
the society. Thus it can be safely said that, Indian constitution is
essentially federal in formation but unitary in functioning. It is one of
the unique political system that exists and has st rengthen over the
period of tie since Independence.
Question for exercise:
1.Write a detailed note on the concept and essential features of
federalism.
2.What are the important features of the centre -state relations in
India?
3.Examine the areas of conflicts and cooperation between the
centre and states.munotes.in
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III.Union Budget
Chapter Scheme:
1.Introduction
2.Objectives and functions of Budgeting
3.Types and classifications
4.Preparation and Presentation
1.Introduction:
The term ‘Budget’ has been derived from the French word
‘Bougette’ means a long leather pouch in which the treasurer of the
Kingdom carried funds to pay the expenses of the court.
Afterwords, the term is popularly known as the ‘statement of total
annual expenditure and receipts of the government.’ gradual ly, it
has widened its scope beyond mere a statement of expenditure
and receipts to planning of economy, development of the country
and welfare of the people. It is indeed a policy instrument for the
governments in power to implement their agenda and progr ammes
of development. Also , the budget forms the basis of both the
‘budgeting’ and ‘budgetary control’. whereas, ‘budgeting connotes
to the process of budget preparation and budgetary control signifies
the financial control over the working of the organisa tion.
Budget was not only practiced and known in ancient and
medieval India. Kautilya, the founder of Mauryan empire in
‘Arthshastra’ said, ‘if the treasury if full of wealth, the plans for
social benefit can be executed easily. Mere handwork does not
bear fruit or we can say a person without means is unable to
accomplish his tasks. Efforts and wealth both are needed for
attaining objects of life.’
2.Meaning:
Budget is a tool of planning and control. Budgeting involves the
steps of setting short -term ob jectives, specifying programmes, and
expressing them in the budget for that particular year. It is the back
bone of any government and nation. No government can function
without having money in their hands.
3.Definitions:
1.According to Article 112 to 117 of the Indian constitution, ‘the
Union Budget of a year, also referred to as the annual financial
statement, is a statement of the estimated receipt and expenditure
of the government for the particular year’.
2.According to Cambridge Dictionary, the budget is, ‘a plan to
show how much money a person or organisation will earn and how
much they will need or be able to spend’.munotes.in
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3.Aaron Wildavsky defined the budget as, ‘In the most general
definition, budgeting is concerned with the translation of financial
resour ces into human purposes.viii’
As per Wildavasky (1975)ixBudget is:
a-A record of the past
b-A plan, a statement about the future
c-A mechanism for allocating resources
d-An instrument of pursuing efficiency
e-An engine of economic distribution
f-A result of political bargaining
g-The most operational expression of national policies in public
sector.
4.Principles of Budgeting
Budget making is a very important process. Therefore,
certain principles has to be kept in mind in order to prepare a
balanced and relevant budget.
4.1Principle of Annuality:
The budget should be on annual basis. It should be prepared
for a particular financial year only. This attracts the principle of ‘rule
of lapses’. which means if the money granted in previous budget
has not been utilised by the concerning department, it shall be
returned through same channel.
4.2On Cash Basis:
The budget is always prepared on the basis of cash in hand. It
can not be prepared on any speculative grounds.
4.3. Single Budget:
There shoul d be only one budget for whole financial
transactions during particular year. It gives a clear picture to the
nation about its resources and requirements. Previously, the
Railways budget was presented separately but now it is merged
with the general budge t itself.
4.4. Gross not net:
The budget should reflect gross transactions of the government
for a particular financial year. It should include detailed information
about the receipts and expenditure of each department. This
principle provides a Parliam entary control over the budget. If this
provision is not followed in any of the budgets, such budget should
be considered as Net not Grass.munotes.in
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4.5. Close to Estimates:
The budget can not be a guess work or speculation of people. It
should be very close to the amount of receipts and expenditure. If
this principle is not followed, it may lead to improper and
disproportionate allocation of funds.
4.6. Accounting Heads:
The budget should have a clear mention of accounting heads
for allocation. It enables in c alculating the department wise receipts
and expenditures.
Check your progress:
1.Define the concept and main principles of the budget.
2.what are the main Principles of budgeting in India?
5.The Structure of Government of India’s Accounts:
The budget in India shows annual receipts and expenditures in
following parts:
i-Consolidated Fund of India
ii-Contingency Fund, and
iii-Public Account
5.1Consolidated Fund of India
All revenues received by government, loans raised by, it, and
also its receipts from recoveries of loans granted by it by
consolidated fund of India. All the expenditure of government is
incurred from consolidated fund and no amount can be withdrawn
from the fund without authorization from the Parliament.x
5.2Contingency Fu nd:
This is the fund meant to be used during any kind of emergency
or unforeseen situation. It does not require immediate approval
from parliament. However, later its approval is mandatory. The
president of India is incharge of this fund. It is dispel by h im only.munotes.in
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Parliamentary approval and withdrawal of equivalent amount from
consolidated fund is done subsequently. Thus the amount spent
from contingency fund is returned to it.
5.2.1Public Account:
This account includes the transactions relating to Provident
Fund, Small savings, collections and other deposits. The money
received under these heads are kept in public account. Generally,
this fund doesn't belong to the government. But if the government
utilities any amount of such fund, it has to return it.
Chec k your progress:
1.Explain various types of accounts of government of India.
6.Budgetary Process in India
In a democratic country the process of budgeting is very
important activity. It has to be done with utmost care and sincerity.
Therefor e, the budget in India undergoes following processes:
6.1Preparation and Estimation
The process of budget preparation begins with issuance of a
circular by the Ministry of Finance somewhere in the month of
Sept./Oct.. It is given about six month before the presentation of
budget. The circular prescribes a detailed guideline, to the
departments about time -schedule, preparation of plan -and -non-
plan expenditure for the ensuing year. It also requires them to
submit the statement of the ongoing year in a ti me bound manner.
Basically, the budget circular requires following details from the
departments:
i.Accounts classification
ii.Budget estimate of the current year
iii.Revised estimates of the current year
iv.Actual for the previous year, and
v.Proposed estimates for t he upcoming financial yearmunotes.in
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6.2Approval of demands
The Finance Ministry receives the completed formats from
departments by the end of December. It is thoroughly scrutinized at
this stage. Also the estimates of revenue is finalized by the finance
ministry. T he final draft of the budget is presented in the parliament
by the during the last days of the February. At this stage, there can
some general discussions on broad policy measures of the
government. However, the detailed discussion takes place in the
secon d stage of the budget. All the members of parliament
participate in debate and discussion on budget. Each and every
policies are given a detailed attention before approval or
disapproval. At this stage various kinds of motions can be moved
by the members. Generally, it is:
i.Policy Cut motion, seeks to reduce the demand by Rs. 1
ii.Economy cut motion, seeks to reduce the demand by a specific
amount
iii.Token cut motion, seeks a normal cut of Rs. 100
After detailed discussion, the finance minister requests
Parliame nt to grant the demands raised under various heads. If
some items in the budget can not be covered during discussion it
can be clubbed together and put to vote as guillotine. The budget is
always presented in the Lok Sabha only. However, after getting
pass ed from Lok -Sabh, it is sent to Rajy -Sabha for approval. The
Rajy Sabha can hold or discuss the budget for 14 days only. After
that, it is deemed to be passed by the house. After passing from
both the house the budget is sent to the President of India in the
form of a money bill. The president is bound by constitution to sign
the budget at first instance itself.
6.3Execution
After passing from the parliament and receiving ascent of the
President, the budget goes to the executive branch of the
government for implementation. The Ministry of Finance gets
charge of execution of the Appropriation Act. The departments are
advised to implement their individual funds. This process is
monitored by the disposing authority, who does not gives any
excess fund withou tp r i o ra p p r o v a l .T h ed e p a r t m e n to fr e v e n u e ,
Tax and GST are incharge of monitoring of the expenditures. The
Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and other nationalised banks act as
the custodians of the funds received as revenue or expenditure.
They perform the ro le of collection and disbursement for the various
departments of the government.munotes.in
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6.4Audit.
The executive branch of the government spends money as per
the approvals of the legislature. However, in order to maintain
accountability and transparency in the f inancial transactions, their
are authorities to ensure that the money is utilized for the right
purpose, by the right persons and in the right manner. The
constitution of India provides for the position of a Comptroller and
Auditor General of India. Howeve r, later on the Auditors office is
separated from the Comptrollers office. There reports are tabled
before the Parliament.
Check your progress:
1.Write a detailed note on preparation of the budget.
2.Explain the execution and audit process of the budge t.
References
1.1Ambedkar, B. R. dr. ‘Constituent Assembly Debates’, Vol. VII,
P. 43.
2.1Laxmikanth, M (2016) : Indian Polity, 4thEdi. McGraw Hill
Education PVT. LTD. New Delhi, p. 13.2.
3.1Ambedkar, B. R. dr. (1949): Speeches in the const ituent
assembly on 25.11.1949 reproduced in ‘The Constitution and
Constituent Assembly’ Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1990, p. 176
4.1K. C. Wheare (1951): Federal Government, p. 28
5.1Austin, Granville(1966): : The Indian Constitution -Cornerstone
of a Nation, oxfor d, pp. 186 -88
6.1PRS Legislative (2012): centre -state relations, available on
www.prsindia.org, accessed on 3.9.2019, at 12:16pm.munotes.in
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7.1Concept of Federalism, www.cliffsnotes.com , accessed on
31/8/2019, 11.00am
8.Centre -State relations www.legalservicesindia.com accessed
on 2/9/2019, 5.00pm
9.1Wildavasky, Aaron B. (1984): ‘The Politics of Budgetary
Process’, Little Brown & Co.
10.1Wilda vasky, Aaron B. (1975): ‘Budgeting: A Comparative
Theory of Budgetary Process’, Boston/Toranto, Little Brown &
company, pp 7 -10
11.1IGNOU notes from Shodhganga, Chapter 2, ‘Indian Union
Budget’ p. 56
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Unit -2
PARTY AND PARTY POLITICS IN INDIA
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives:
2.2 Introduction:
2.1OBJECTIVES:
To understand the concept of political party in democracies
To understand the role of political parties in Indian democracy
To understand the ru les and provision of regulation and
registration of parties
To understand the conditions of recognition of national, regional
and registered political parties.
2.2INTRODUCTION:
“Party Politics in India displays numerous paradoxical
features, which reve als the blending of western and modern forms
of bureaucratic organization participatory politics with indigenous
practices and institutions, India’s leading political party, the Indian
National Congress, is one of the oldest in the world, yet it has not
succeeded in providing the nucleus for an institutionalized party
system which can be fitted easily into any one of the conventional
categories of party systems known in the West ”(363-80, 2001)
Thus Political parties are the voluntary organizations of the p eople
believe in same ideology, programme and agenda for politics of the
country. Together, they try to mobile the masses and capture
political power. The party system in India started its evolution since
1885 with the establishment of India National Cong ress by A. O.
Hume. However, during its initial phase India’s independence was
not on its agenda. Later on Gradual entry of nationalist leaders like
G.K. Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
have infused the agenda of nationalism in INC programmes.
Thus INC remained single largest party in India during
freedom movement. Later on Communist Party of India (1925),
Hindu Mahasabha (1915), Shiromani Akali Dal (1920) Muslim
League (1906) were also established as political parties in pre
indep endence India. After Independence Indian State has adopter
Westminster model of Parliamentary Democracy and adhered to
multi –party system for the purpose of representation of the people.munotes.in
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According to M. Laxmikanth, ‘There are four types of political
parties in Modern Democratic States:
(i)Reactionary parties which cling to the old socio -economic and
political institutions,
(ii)Conservative parties which believe in maintaining the status –
quo,
(iii)Liberal parties which aim at reforming the existing institutions,
and
(iv)Radical parties which aim at establishing a new order by
overthrowing the existing institutions.
Ideological Orientations of Political Parties:
Political parties often claim to adhere to some or other
ideology. It helps them to make their agenda and programme to
appeal the masses for support. Thus, ideology works as one of the
strongest tool of political mobilization around a political party.
There are different types of political ideologies, namely Nationalism,
Communist, Capitalism, Fascism etc. Th ey play important role in
shaping of political views of the citizens. In adherence to above
ideologies the political parties can be classified as:
a.Left Wing Political Party: Champions the cause of socialism and
communism. i.e. Communist Party of India (C PI), CPM, CPML,
Forward Block
b.Right wing political party: Nationalism, cultural and traditional ,
racial, and other identity based orientation s, BJP, Shiv Sena,
Akali Dal, SP, BSP etc.
c.Centrist Political party: Has liberal and inclusive orientation.
Indian National Congress, NCP, JD (U), DMK, AIADMK etc
The political parties in India emanates and adheres to
different political ideologies as per there convenience. Attaining
power and implementation of this manifesto can be said to be the
main goals of pol itical parties in India.
Party System in India:
India is a multi –party democracy. Though our constitution is
silent about the nature and structure of the political parties, there
are rules and procedures made through People’s Representation
Act. 1951, guidelines of Election Commission of India for the
registration of Political parties, Anti -Defection Act. 1985 and
guidelines of Supreme Court of India, provides for the nature,
quality and character of the political parties.munotes.in
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18
The seeds of political par ties in India were shown by the
formation of the Indian National Congress in 1985 by A. O. Hume
as its founder and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee (or Umesh
Chandra Banerjee) as its first president at Mumbai. The main
objective of this organization was to act as an intermediary between
Indian and the British Empire. Initially it was not against colonial
rule in India. Indian leaders like Pherozeshah Mehta, Baduruddin
Tayyabji, Madam Cama, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dada Bhai
Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpatrai
became very critical of the British policies in India. Thus Congress
started raising the voice for swaraj or self -rule. Under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, INC was instrumental in gaining the
freedom for the nation. After indepen dence the Indian National
Congress was the main political party, with other parties like Jan
Sangh (1954), Communist Party, Hindu Mahasabha etc. Article 19
of the Indian constitution provides under Art. 19 (1) freedom to form
and join any union or associat ion of their choice. Thus, every Indian
is free to found a political party or join any political party of their
choice.
The election commission of India provides detailed
guidelines for the registration of any political outfit as a political
party. After registration as a political party, they can contest election
as a political party. However, they do not get a common symbol
until they contest all the seats in a particular election. Therefore,
election commission has set of following guidelines for the political
parties to get the of their status as a national, regional or registered
political party. Following are the criteria to get the status of
National, Regional or registered party.
Eligibility of National Political Party
Tob ee l i g i b l ef o ra‘ National Political Party of India ,’ the Election
Commission has set the following criteria −
It secures at least sixpercent of the valid votes polled in
anyfour or more states, at a general election to the House of
the People or, to the State Legislative Assembly; and
In addition, it wins at least four seats in the House of the Peop le
from any State or States.
OR
It wins at least two percent seats in the House of the People
(i.e., 11 seats in the existing House having 543 members), and
these members are elected from at least three different States.
Eligibility of State Political Pa rty
To be eligible for a ‘State Political Party,’ the Election
Commission has set the following criteriamunotes.in
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19
It secures at least six percent of the valid votes polled in the
State at a general election, either to the House of the People or
to the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned; and
In addition, it wins at least two seats in the Legislative Assembly
of the State concerned.
OR
It wins at least three percent (3%) of the total number of
seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State, or at least thr ee
seats in the Assembly, whichever is more.
Registered Party
The political party which fulfills all the guidelines of ECI gets
recognition as a registered party. They do not get permanent
symbol until they secure required vote percentage in an election at
state or national level. However, they are allowed to contest
elections as a political party.
The following table illustrates the major National Political
Parties of India −
Political Party
NameAbbreviationFounded
inCurrent
LeaderIndian Nationa l
CongressINC 1885 Sonia GandhiCommunist Party
of IndiaCPI 1925 Suravaram
Sudhakar
ReddyCommunist Party
of India (Marxist)CPI-M 1964 Sitaram
YechuryBharatiya Janata
PartyBJP 1980 Amit ShahBahujan Samaj
PartyBSP 1985 Mayavatimunotes.in
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20
1.Bille, La rs. ‘Democratizing Democratic Procedures :M y t ho r
Reality’, Party Politics, 7 (3): 363 -80. 2001.
2.Brass, P. ‘Ethnic Conflict in Multiethnic Societies: The
convocational Solution and its Critics’, in P.Brass, Ethnicity and
Nationalism: Theory and Comparison.
3.Paul R. Brass, The Politics of India since
Independence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1994).
4.Paul R. Brass, “Democracy and Political Participation in India,”
in Myron L. Cohen, ed., Asia: Case Studies in the Social
Sciences: A Guide for Teaching (New York: M.E. Sharpe,
1992).
5.Myron Weiner, Party -Building in a New Nation: Indian National
Congress (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).
munotes.in
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21Unit -3
SOCIAL DYNAMICS
Unit Structure
3.1Objective
3.2Introduction
3.3 Characteristics of Caste and the Caste System
3.1 OBJECTIVE:
The objective of the unit is to make the student aware of the
phenomenon of caste and caste system in the Indian Soc iety and
Politics. The u nit also aim to make student understand the role of
religion in vote bank politics and what are the reasons for the rise of
communalism in the country. It also aims to understand the role of
gender in political process and to examin e the causes for low
participation of women in politics.
Caste (with reference to reservation)
Introduction
Definition and characteristics of Caste and the Caste
System
Role of caste in Indian Politics
Constitutional Provisions regarding the caste -based
reservation
3.2 INTRODUCTION:
The Phenomenon of caste has probably evoked more
controversy than any other aspects of Indian social, political and
economic life. Caste system is perhaps the world’s longest
surviving and most rigorously enforced system of soc ial hierarchy.
Its origin is in the Varna system which divided the society into four
main groups –Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras which
is a complex ordering of social group. More commonly caste is
understood as a ranked order of precedence, wi th Brahmins sitting
at the top of the hierarchy and Dalits or so -called untouchables at
the very bottom.
The varna of Brahmins, commonly identified with those fulfilling
the callings of priest and spiritual preceptors;munotes.in
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22The varna of Kshatriya usually ident ified with rulers and warriors
and responsible for governance;
The Varna ofVaishyas basically identified with commercial
livelihoods and wealth creators.
The Varna of Shudra often identified as a labourer which is
considered to be at the lowest.
So called untouchables and also the hill and forest populations
who are now commonly called as Tribals, occupy a place below
or outside varna system.
Since ages caste system is seen and experienced as a
major cause of a disparity and inequality in the Indian societ y. India
has made an unimaginable progress in nearly all the sphere of
human life but one thing has still remained below par is the status
of Dalits and backward communities in the country.
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar in an address to member of Constituent
Assembl y on November 25, 1949, declared:
We must take our political democracy as a social democracy
as well. Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the
base of it social democracy. What does social democracy mean? It
means a way of life which recogn ises liberty, equality and fraternity
as the principle of life… On the 26thof January 1950, we are going
to enter into a life of contradictions. In politics we will have equality
and in social and economic life we will have inequality. In politics,
we wil l be recognising the principle of one man one vote and one
vote one value. In our social and economic life, we shall by reason
of our social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle
of one man -one value.
3.3 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF C ASTE
AND THE CASTE SYSTEM
S. V. Ketkar –in his book ‘History of caste in India’ defines “Caste
is a social group having two characteristics (a) membership is
confined to those who are born of members & includes all persons
no born (b) the members are for bidden by an inexorable social law
to marry outside the group."
Caste system is a system of social stratification in which
communities are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary
group called Jatismunotes.in
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23Characteristics of Caste and caste system:
1.Endoga my:
Prohibitions on inter -caste marriages are not only a hallmark
feature of the caste system designed to ensure rigid social norms of
purity and pollution but are also essential for maintaining its very
own existence. As a result, intercaste marriages bet ween Dalits
and non -Dalits has become a question of honour which can lead to
extrajudicial punishment that include honour killings, public lynching
or killing of couple etc.
The digital era had witnessed the endogamy culture in its own
form. The online mat ch making sites exclusively offers to match
individual according to their caste which is a clear example of the
practice of endogamy in its new version.
2.Untouchability:
The practice of untouchability is the imposition of social
disabilities and social excl usion of a person because of their birth
into untouchable caste. Practice of untouchability had prohibited
Dalits from walking on the public streets as their shadow may
pollute the upper caste Hindus. To identify Dalits, they were asked
to wear a black bra celet, string a broom around their waist, or hang
an earthen pot around their neck so that their spit should not fall on
earth which may pollute an upper caste Hindu who might
unknowingly walk on it.
India after independence has improved in a way of
untouc hability practices. Article 17 of Indian Constitution has
abolished the practice of untouchability. But still there are cases
where Dalits are prohibited from entering temples, where inter
dinning with upper caste is prohibited which has forced Dalits to
self-affirm their inferior status in the society.
3.Segmental division of society:
Caste system segregates the society into small groups on
the basis of individual castes. Caste denotes a system of rigid
social stratification into ranked groups decided by d escent and
occupation. Caste is descent based and hereditary in nature.
Individuals caste is determined by one’s birth into a particular caste.
4.Hierarchy:
Castes are arranged in the hierarchical order entitled to
maximum rights from at the top of the order to least rights at the
bottom of the order. While the particular ranking of caste may differ
from region to region but the extremes of the pyramid is fix withmunotes.in
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24Brahmins sitting atop of the pyramid and Dalits and untouchables at
the very bottom.
5.Restricted choice of occupation:
Choice to choose the profession or occupation completely
lies of individual choice is prohibited in caste system. Each caste is
associated with particular occupation and occupations were
hereditary and were obliged to follow the same occupation.
The upper three caste in the order had overtime enjoyed
significant occupational mobility but the bottom most continued to
involuntarily inherit occupations assigned to the caste in which they
are born.
3.1.3Role of caste in politics:
Caste politics is said to “signify a wide range of political activity
and theorising founded in the shared experience of injustice to a
member of certain social groups.” The role of caste in the Indian
Political System can be discussed as follow:
1.Caste fac tor in political mobilization and leadership
recruitment:
In India, caste plays an important role in mobilizing people
during elections. It is easier to earn votes from people by playing a
caste card during election. Caste interest influence the voters to
vote for the candidate belonging from their caste. Majority of the
time caste has been the matter of pride and thus in the process of
choosing the leader or leaning towards any political parties,
leader’s belief or parties’ approach towards a particular c aste also
plays a crucial role.
2.Propagation of Casteism during election:
The political behaviour of the member of different political
parties is caste oriented. The values and principles of different
political parties are caste based. The propaganda shoul d be based
on caste or not during the election depends on the population of
particular caste in a particular region. The selection of the
candidates for a constituency is based on whether he will be able to
get the support of a particular caste or castes. Even the caste of
those recommending a candidate plays an important role. When a
single caste is not likely to be effective alliance are formed on caste
basis by the candidates or by the voters: Even the office bearers of
a party are appointed on the basis of caste to please a caste group
in the party and in the constituency.
The present political System encourages the use of caste as
a means of mustering support as well as a means to enable themunotes.in
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25illiterate and politically ignorant masses of India to partic ipate in the
modern democratic process
3.Caste factor in local self -government:
Caste plays a crucial role in the functioning of Panchayati
Raj institutions. Caste based division in the rural parts of India has
been the biggest hindering factor in the effe ctive functioning of
Panchayati Raj institution. Caste also functions, as a pressure
group in politics.Political bargaining is also done on the caste lines.
Caste organizations have emerged to organize caste members for
collective bargaining with each othe r.
4.Caste as a dividing and uniting force of Indian Politics:
The present political System encourages the use of caste as
a means of mustering support as well as a means to enable the
illiterate and politically ignorant masses of India to participate in th e
modern democratic process. But at the same time it leads to
unhealthy struggle for power and acts as a dividing force.
3.1.4 Constitutional provision regarding the caste -based
reservation:
Reservation in Indian law is a form of affirmative action
where byapercentage of seats are reserved in the public sector
units, union and state civil services, union and state
government departments and in all public and private
educational institutions, except in the religious/ linguistic
minority educational instit utions, for the socially and
educationally backward communities and the Scheduled Castes
and Tribes who are inadequately represented in these services and
institutions. The reservation policy is also extended for the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for representation in
the Parliament of India.
Constitutional Provisions:
Reservation refers to an act of withholding, reserving or
keeping back some of the seats for the upliftment of status and
standard of living socially and educationally backward sect ions,
classes or groups. In a legal understanding, reservation in Indian
law is a form of affirmative action whereby a percentage of seats
are reserved in the public sector units, union and state civil
services, union and state government departments and i n
educational institutions, except in the religious or linguistic minority
educational institutions, for the socially and educationally backward
communities and the Scheduled Castes and Tribes who are
inadequately represented in these services and institut ions.munotes.in
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26Article 15(4) and 16(4) of the Constitution enabled both the
state and Central Governments to reserve seats in public
services for the members of the SC and ST, thereby, enshrining
impartiality of opportunity in matters of civic service.
Article 16(4 A):it makes provisions for reservation in the matter
of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services
under the State in favour of SCs and STs (Constitutional 77th
Amendment, –Act, 1995)
Article 16 (4 B) : It enables the state to fill the un filled vacancies
of a year which are reserved for SCs/STs in the succeeding
year, thereby nullifying the ceiling of fifty percent reservation on
total number of vacancies of that year. (Constitutional 81st
Amendment, –Act, 2000).
Article 330 and 332: It provides for specific representation
through reservation of seats for the SCs and the STs in the
Parliament (Article 330) and in the State Legislative Assemblies
(Article 332), as well as, in Government and public sector jobs,
in both the federal and state Governments (Articles 16(4),
330(4) and 335).
Questions:
1.Describe the characteristics of Caste and Caste system
2.What are the constitutional provision for caste based
reservation?
3.Explain the role of caste in Indian Politics.
RELIGION (WITH REFERENCE TO COMMUNALISM)
Concept of Secularism
Concept of Communalism
Communalism in modern India
Communal violence in post -independence period
Causes of Communalism
Measures to overcome communalism
Role of religion in vote bank politicsmunotes.in
Page 27
273.2.1Concept of Secularism:
India is a multi -cultural, multi religious, multi linguistic
country. Having different caste, language, religion etc. could be a
divisive factor in some way or the other and if not handled carefully
which can cause a threat to the unity and in tegrity of the nation.
In S.R. Bommai vs. UOI “It was held that Religious
tolerance and equal treatment of all religious group and protection
of their life and property and the places of their worship are an
essential part of secularism enshrined in our co nstitution. while the
citizen of this country are free to profess, practice and propagate
such religion, faith or belief as they choose, so for as the state is
concerned i.e. from the point of view of the state, the religion, faith
or belief of a person is immaterial to it, all are equal and all are
entitled to be treated equally.” Further the Court while emphasizing
upon the significance of Secularism declared it as the basic
structure of the Constitution.
The concept of secularism was not expressly incorp orated in
the constitution at the stage of its making. The term ‘Secular’ was
added to the Indian Constitution by 42ndAmendment. However, its
operation was visible in the fundamental rights and directive
principles. The concept of secularism, though not e xpressly stated
in the constitution, was, nevertheless deeply embedded in the
constitutional philosophy. The concepts of secularism are not static;
it is elastic in connotation. In this area, flexibility is most desirable
as there cannot be any fixed views in this concept for all time to
come. The courts decide from time to time the contours of the
concepts of secularism and enforce it in practice. In. M Ismail
faruqui vs. UOI , it was held that it is clear from the constitutional
scheme that it guarantees e quality in the matters of religion to all
individuals and groups irrespective of their faith emphasizing that
there is no religion of the state itself. The preamble of the
constitution read in particular with articles 25 to 28 emphasis this
aspect and indi cates that it is in this manner this concept of
secularism embodied in the constitutional scheme as a creed
adopted by the Indian people has to be understood while examining
the constitutional validity of any legislation on the touch stone of the
constitut ion.
3.2.2Concept of Communalism:
Communalism is referred in the western world as a “theory
or system of government in which virtually autonomous local
communities are loosely in federation”. But in the Indian sub -
continent context, communalism has come t o be associated withmunotes.in
Page 28
28tensions and clashes between different religious communities in
various regions.
Communalism is a political philosophy which advocates
followers of a particular religion to have political allegiance to their
own religious community. A s a matter of fact, a person’s mere
affiliation to the social, cultural and service aspects of a religious
community would not amount to communalism. Communalism
preaches the followers of a particular religion to have hatred
against the followers of other religious communities. It assumes
that the followers of a particular religion will have common interests
that differ from other religions. In essence, communalism is
opposed to secularism and even humanism.
Communalism is basically an ideology which consis ts of three
elements: -
A belief that people who follow the same religion have common
secular interests i.e. they have same political, economic and
social interests. So, here socio -political communalities arises.
An o t i o nt h a t ,i nam u l t i -religious socie ty like India, these
common secular interests of one religion are dissimilar and
divergent from the interests of the follower of another religion.
The interests of the follower of the different religion or of
different ‘communities’ are seen to be complete ly incompatible,
antagonist and hostile.
Communalism is political trade in religion. It is an ideology
on which communal politics is based. And communal violence are
conjectural consequences of communal ideology
3.2.3Communalism in Modern India:
Communali sm in India is result of the emergence of modern
politics, which has its roots in partition of Bengal in 1905 and
feature of separate electorate under Government of India Act,
1909 . Later, British government also appeased various
communities through Commun al award in 1932 , which faced
strong resistance from Gandhi ji and others. All these acts were
done by the British government to appease Muslims and other
communities, for their own political needs. This feeling of
communalism has deepened since then, frag menting the Indian
society and being a cause of unrest.
It may be noted that tension has existed not only among the
Hindus and the Muslims but sometimes even amongst the
members of the same community. For example, there have been
numerous clashes between t he Sawarna Hindus and themunotes.in
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29Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes or conflicts of Suinni -Shia
Muslims.
In the last few years the intensity of communalism has
increased and has also spread to those states which were
comparatively free from communal tensions an d riots. Social media
is playing the role of one of the dominant factor in propagation of
communalism.
3.2.4Communal Violence in Modern India:
Partition of India,1947
After partition, millions of populations were forced to move
from both sides of the bord er. Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims in
India were killed in masses, women were raped, and many children
lost their parents. There was hatred everywhere, violence didn’t see
anything except bloodshed. Later, it turned in the problem of
refugees and their reh abilitation became one of the biggest
challenges for independent India.
Anti-Sikh riots, 1984
This is one of the bloodshed in India, where Sikhs in large
number were massacred by anti -Sikh mob. This massacre took
place in response to the assassination of Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi by his own Sikh body Guard in response to her actions
authorising the military operation.
Ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Hindu Pundits in 1989
Kashmir is known as the heaven of India and was known for
itsKashmiryat, i.e. the ref lection of love, peace and harmony
through brotherhood and unity of Hindu, Muslims and other
communities living together. But, the brotherhood saw a serious
blow due to Extremist Islamic terrorism in the Kashmir valley, which
led to mass killing and large scale exodus of Kashmiri Pundits from
the valley to the various regions and corners of the India, giving
them the status of refugee in their own country. Since then, the
valley is under the grip of communal violence and the ongoing
unrest has become a prob lem for the development of the people.
Babri masjid demolition in Ayodhya, 1992
According to Hindu mythology, Ayodhya is birth place of
Lord Rama and therefore it is sacred place for Hindu religion. But in
medieval period Mughal general Mir Baqi, built a m osque, named
after Mughal ruler Babur. There were disputes since then and riots
also took place. But in 1990, due to some political mobilisation,
there was atmosphere of protest by Hindu religious groups and inmunotes.in
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30large scale “karsevak” visited Ayodhya from a ll parts of India, in
support of demolishing Babri masjid and building Ram temple
there. These movements caused huge amount of bloodshed and
since then it is a disputed matter.
After this, violence was followed by the Godhra incident in
2002, when “karseva k” returning from Ayodhya in a Sabarmati
Express were killed by fire in the coaches of train. This act was
followed by the extended communal violence in Gujarat. That
violence is like black spot in the history of the Gujarat and nation
too, as people were killed without any mercy. Hindu and Muslim
community became antagonist to each other. Till now people are
fighting for justice in Supreme Court, with a ray hope from the
Indian Judiciary.
Assam Communal violence, 2012
North eastern states are known for it s distinguished tribal
population & ethnic diversity and large scale Bangladeshi
immigration has changed the demography of North eastern states,
which often becomes reason for clashes. In 2012, there were ethnic
clashes between Bodos (Tribal, Christian & H indu faith) and
Muslims. Ethnic tensions between Bodos and Bengali -speaking
Muslims escalated into a riot in Kokrajhar in July 2012, when
unidentified miscreants killed four Bodo youths at Joypur.
Muzaffarnagar violence, 2013
The cause of this ethnic clash between Jat and Muslim
community is very much disputed and has many versions.
According to few, it was started after some suspicious post on
Social media platform Facebook. According to some, it was
escalated after the eve teasing case in Shamli. Let the reasons be
unknown, but what matters is, the nature and scale of loss to the
country with respect to human resource and peace.
3.2.5Causes of Communalism:
Communalism in India has not emerged due to a single
factor. Various factors are responsible for the existence of
communalism in India. The following factors are:
1.Legacy of the past.
On the basis of the “Two Nation” theory of Jinnah, India was
partitioned. Communal politics had played its nasty game during
the immediate past of independent India. The “Di vide and Rule”
policy of the British Government served their colonial interest.
The partition of India was the ultimate outcome of their politics.
Though India has adopted the principles of secularism andmunotes.in
Page 31
31equality of the people. But communalism as a legacy of past, is
continuing and expressing itself in various form.
2.Communalist Leaders.
Communalism has flourished in India, because the communalist
leaders of both the Hindu and Muslim communities desire to
flourish it, in the interest of their communities.
3.Presence of Communal parties and organization.
Religion in India has become an important agency of political
socialization and it is also reflected in the ideology of a number
of political parties. A number of communal and sectarian
political parties and or ganisations are present in India. Muslim
League, Jamaat Islami, Hindu Mahasabha, Akali Dal, Vishwa
Hindu Parishad and AIMIM are directly or indirectly responsible
for the emergence of communalism. The so called secular
political parties also enter into all iance with communal forces for
electoral benefit. Candidates are selected by different political
parties taking into account the communal composition of the
constituency.
4.Tendency of the minorities.
The minorities fail to be intermingled in the national ma instream.
Most of the members of minority communities do not participate
in the secular nationalistic politics and insist on maintaining their
separate entity. They also demand security of life and property,
reservation for minorities in services etc. This tendency of
minorities has kept them isolated from the main stream of India.
5.Orthodoxy and Obscurantism.
The orthodox and obscurantist members of the minorities feel
that they have a distinct entity with their own cultural pattern,
personal laws and way o f thinking. Such a feeling has prevented
them from accepting the concept of secularism and religious
tolerance. Hindu chauvinism is also equally responsible for non -
acceptance of secular principles which has resulted in
resistance from the Muslim community and revival of demand
for separate electorates and the formation of different political
parties organised in the line of fundamentalism.
6.Poverty.
Mass poverty and unemployment create a sense of frustration
among the people. It generates backwardness, illi teracy,
ignorance, etc. The unemployed youth of both the communities
can be easily trapped by religious fundamentalists and fanatics.
They are used by them to cause communal riots. Moreover, inmunotes.in
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32comparison with the Muslims, Hindus are better placed in
servi ce, industry and trade which cause a sense of contempt
among them. The weak economic status often breeds
communalism.
7.Cross border factor.
Communal tensions in India sometimes are highly intensified
due to the rule of two neighbouring theocratic countries .T h e s e
countries try to create communal problems in the border states.
The communal problems of Punjab and Jammu Kashmir are
caused due to provocation of Pakistan. So long as this cross -
border factor is not removed, communal problems are likely to
stay in India.
8.Failure of Government.
Both the Union and the State Governments often fail to prevent
communalism in the country. Due to lack of prior information,
they fail to take any preventive measures. So the communal
violence can easily take innocent lives and destroys property.
Failure of immediate and effective steps has been a cause of
the continuance of communalism.
3.2.6Measures to overcome communalism:
The solution of such problems cannot be one or two steps by
government. Apart from legislative suppo rt, administrative efficiency
and alertness with the help of modern tools and technology, the
major onus lies on the citizens themselves by avoiding communal
violence. Though its bit philosophical in nature, as it’s not a
concrete solution, but the sustain able changes can be brought only
by those steps.
Each of us, have to make a balance between our own
religious community and national interests, we have to unite with
nationalism, and then should move forward. The teachings of a
religious community may be g reat, but the followers of the
community concerned should understand that nationalism is
greater. If they do not become familiar with this fact, they will be
away from national stream; they will suffer. This fact relates not
only to India but also to many other countries of the world.
We have to be rational while making decisions. Each and
every religious community has been founded on the basis of certain
values that were best and necessary for circumstances of the
country and times. Goodness likes adjust ment with others, or co -
operation, or consistency can be found in their teachings. But by
not moving according to the teachings of their religious community
those who depend upon fundamentalism and conservativemunotes.in
Page 33
33practices, or those who use their co -religio nists taking advantage of
their poverty, illiteracy or innocence, are dishonest towards their
own self, their co -religionists and also towards those great leaders
who founded the religious community. Everyone must understand
this fact also. Along with th is, leaders of all communities, by
knowing it, must come forward for an atmosphere surcharged with
harmony, in which lies their welfare too. The religious teachers
should promote rational and practical things through religion
promoting peace and security.
Policies like appeasement, fun and frolic with the sentiments
of people for individual and party interests, and selection of
candidates on the basis of religious community or sect by keeping
aside the qualifications, one, certainly, does the things against
national interest or nationalism; are reflections of lower national
thinking. That is why; these kinds of acts should be stopped at
government level and also at the level of political parties.
There is a great need to work towards eradicating the
problem of unemployment among the youths, illiteracy and poverty
and that too with honesty and without any discrimination. This will
help in solving many problems, and will create awakening. The
result will be in checking on communalism to a great extent. That is
why it is expected that a lot of work have to be done at government
level in this direction.
Thus, in order to get rid of the problem of communalism in
India, there is a need of collective efforts. All will have to discharge
their duties.
3.2.7Role of Religion in Vote Bank Politics:
Vote bank politics is one of the widely practiced amongst all
the political parties across the party lines. Political parties mostly
give tickets to the candidates after analysing the population
proportion of particular rel igion in a specific constituency. These
candidates divide the vote of their caste or caste cluster, and each
of them is forced to gather support from other castes. In such a
situation, the winner will naturally be from the same dominant
group. To gain the attention of people many a time’s religion issues
are included in the election manifestos. As far as political party
concerned, political parties’ resort to various tactics to woo voters.
Sometime political parties target a particular religious’ community
as their voters by mean of scaring or appeasing them.munotes.in
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34Questions:
1.What are the causes of communalism in India?
2.What are the measures to overcome communalism in India?
3.Explain the concept communalism and secularism.
GENDER (WITH REFERENC ET OP O L I T I C A LP A R T I C I P A T I O N )
Introduction
Women Empowerment
History of women’s political participation in India
Nature of Political Participation of women
Constitutional rights of women
Causes of low representation of women in Parliament and
State Legisl ature
Women participation in local self -government –73rdand
74thAmmendment
Debates on Reservation for women in the Loksabha and
Legislative Assemblies
Conclusion
3.3.1 Introduction:
Politics is essentially an art of acquiring and exercising
power. Pow er is necessary to influence the decision -making
process and the policies, to reverse the existing situation wherever
they are disadvantageous and to bring the necessary changes.
Participation from all the section of society, particularly from the
disadvan taged group, in this instance the women is important for
the effective function of democracy. But then politics is all about
power relations. Every social arrangement in a professional, public
or private sphere is an instance of power relationship. As all the
institutions such as family, religion or caste or public institutions are
not less than political institutions. The broader political operation
and the nature of political ideology in the public sphere have itsmunotes.in
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35corresponding implications for the women in the domestic and
private relations. The low participation of women in a formal political
institution is a matter of concern. The lack of sufficient participation
of women in politics and at the decision -making level, are
themselves the result of their p oor social and domestic status and
their exclusion from certain positions of status and levels of power.
The government, activists and non -government organisation have
worked in constant strive to make the political system as beneficial
to women as much it is to men.
3.3.2 Women Empowerment
Women empowerment means equal status to women,
opportunity and freedom to develop themselves. Women
empowerment and gender equality are essential for development of
an inclusive, sensitive and a better off society. Ind ia in particular
has inherently been a patriarchal society, where women for years
have been deprived of rights, are subjected to discrimination and
targeted by evil customs and rituals. Empowerment is giving voice
to the powerless. Empowerment can be socia l, political and
economical. In India, government bears a distinct responsibility to
play an active role in women empowerment. Ever since
independence, government has taken many measures in form of
laws, scheme and other policy measures for gender equality .
Though, these measures were in right faith and improved women
condition, but still there are many spheres where women
participation in India is far behind than what should be. Women
empowerment requires changing the patriarchal thinking, involving
them i n the decision making process and giving them increased
access to resources in form of employment, property, education
opportunities among others.
3.3.3 History of women’s political participation in India –
After decades of suppression faced by women, th eq u e s t i o n
of women empowerment was first taken up in India during the
social reformation movement in the 18thcentury. Many social
reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Jyotiba Phule, Savitribai
Phule, MG Ranade worked for the improvement of women
condition in India. They worked for spreading awareness against
evil customs like the practice of sati, child marriage, advocated
education for women and widow remarriage. Their efforts
culminated into legislations Widow Remarriage and Abolition of
Sati. The social reformation movement also saw participation of
women like PanditaRamabai, Sarala Debi Goshal and Manorama
Majumdar. By 19thcentury women’s own organisations spread all
over the country. Swarna Kumari Debi organised the Sakhi Samitimunotes.in
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36in 1886 for widows and Sarala Devi Chaudhrani organised Bharat
Stree Mahamandal in 1910 to promote female education.
Women contributed in the freedom struggle in various forms.
They picketing liquor and foreign goods shops, participated in
political protests, giving shelter an d food to the political activists
working underground. They also acted as messengers and carried
messages to political prisoners. MK Gandhi was a staunch
proponent of women emancipation. Sarla Devi, Muthulaxmi Reddy,
Susheela Nair, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Su cheta Kripalani and Aruna
Asaf Ali are some the women who participated in the Non -
Cooperation Movement. Usha Mehta, a committed patriot set up a
radio transmitter, called The "Voice of Freedom" to disseminate the
"mantra" of freedom -war. Annie Besant was e lected the president
of the Indian National Congress and launched the Home Rule
Movement. Madam Cama or Bhikaji Cama unfurled the flag of
Indian Independence in Stuttgart Germany and advocated the right
to freedom. Kalpana Dutta was influenced by Subhash C handra
Bose and joined the Chittagong armoury raids.
3.3.4 Nature of Political Participation of Women
Participation of women in 16thLok Sabha –
Of the 543 MPs elected, 62 are women. 58 women were elected to
the 15th Lok Sabha in the 2009 general electi ons.
munotes.in
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37Participation of women in 17thLok Sabha –
716 women candidates contested the General Election. Out of
which, 78 women MPs have been elected to the 17th Lok Sabha.
The representation of women MPs in Lok Sabha is slowly
improving from 5% in the 1st Lok Sabha to 14 % in the 17th Lok
Sabha.
Though the percentage of women MPs has increased over the
years, it is still lower in comparison to some countries. These
include Rwanda (61%), South Africa (43%), UK (32%), USA (24%),
Bangladesh (21%).
Source –PRS Legislative Research
3.3.5 Constitutional Rights of Women:
The rights and safeguards enshrined in the constitution for
women in India are listed below:
The state shall not discriminate against any citizen of India on
the ground of sex [Articl e1 5 ( 1 ) ] .
The state is empowered to make any special provision for
women. In other words, this provision enables the state to make
affirmative discrimination in favour of women [Article 15(3)].
No citizen shall be discriminated against or be ineligible for any
employment or office under the state on the ground of sex
[Article 16(2)].17th Lok Sabha–Women ParticipationSource –PRS Legislative Research
munotes.in
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38Traffic in human beings and forced labour are prohibited [Article
23(1)].
The state to secure for men and women equally the right to an
adequate means of livelihood [Article 39 (a)].
The state to secure equal pay for equal work for both Indian
men and women [Article 39(d)].
The state is required to ensure that the health and strength of
women workers are not abused and that they are not forced by
economic necessity to enter avoca tions unsuited to their
strength [Article 39(e)].
The state shall make provision for securing just and humane
conditions of work and maternity relief [Article 42].
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to renounce practices
derogatory to the digni ty of women [Article 51 -A(e)].
One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct
election in every Panchayat shall be reserved for women [Article
243-D(3)].
One-third of the total number of offices of chairpersons in the
Panchayats at each leve l shall be reserved for women [Article
243-D(4)].
One-third of the total number of seats to be filled by direct
election in every Municipality shall be reserved for women
[Article 243 -T(3)].
The offices of chairpersons in the Municipalities shall be
reserv ed for women in such manner as the State Legislature
may provide [Article 243 -T(4)].
3.3.6 Causes of low representation of women in the parliament
and state legislature
Domestic responsibilities :T r a d i t i o n a lr o l eo fw o m e ni nI n d i ai s
generally perceived to be as a household caretaker. This
perception restricts the access of women to education, job
opportunities and also to politics. Women role is generally
apolitical in the society.
Prevailing cultural attitudes regarding roles of women in
society: the patriarchal thought process and the orthodox view
of women restricts their opportunities.munotes.in
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39Lack of support from family : Being shackled by the household
responsibilities, women do not generally receive the support and
motivation from their family. There is also a view prevalent that
politics would require compromising on principles and ethics.
Lack of confidence :w o m e na r em a d et ob e l i e v et h a tt h e i r
existence is only due to male members of the family. There is
lack of full psychological development and lac k of confidence to
take on the challenges involved in politics.
Lack of finance :w o m e ng e n e r a l l yf a c et h ep r o b l e mo f
inadequate financial resources to take on the expenses of the
election propaganda and other such expenses involved. The
expenses of male candidates of party are generally sought to
cover, leaving meagre resources for women.
Lack of will of Political Parties to provide adequate number of
party tickets to women candidates for their better
representation.
Delay in passing ofWomen Reservati on Bill providing 33%
reservation in Lok Sabha and state legislative assemblies. The
bill was first introduced in 2010 but even today it has not been
passed due to the lack of political will of the successive
governments.
Lack of leadership trainingand l imited involvement in
decision making process : there is lack of training among the
women candidates. Even though there is appreciable
participation of women in local self government as a result of
reserved seats, the lack of training renders their election futile.
Male -dominant nature of Indian politics :t h em a l ed o m i n a n t
nature of our society, from households to Indian politics is
responsible for lack of opportunities to women. The party also
favour male candidates as compared to women.
Corruption and criminalisation of politics : the increasing
involvement of criminals in Indian politics has made women
more vulnerable and disadvantaged.
Role of government officials: the political representatives have
to constantly work with the government officials. However,
women representatives often face resistance and non -
cooperation by the government officials due to gender
insensitivity.munotes.in
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40Poverty and unemployment :P o v e r t yi sab a r r i e rt ow o m e n
participation in politics. Due to poverty women are forced to
work in unorganised sector with poor working conditions and
meagre wages. This also restricts the participation in political
process.
Caste : The women from lower caste are more vulnerable and
ignored and have lesser access to public institutions. Their
voices a re shut down by the dominant castes. The caste divide
also prevents them from uniting and creating a common political
ground for women.
3.3.7 Women participation in Local Self Government -73rdand
74thamendments
In 1989, the central government introdu ced two
constitutional amendments. These amendments aimed at
strengthening local governments and ensuring an element of
uniformity in their structure and functioning across the country.
Later in 1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments were
passe db yt h eP a r l i a m e n t . T h e7 3 r dA m e n d m e n ti sa b o u tr u r a l
local governments (which are also known as Panchayati Raj
Institutions or PRIs) and the 74th amendment made the provisions
relating to urban local government ( Nagarpalikas). The 73rdand
74thamend ments came into force in 1993.
munotes.in
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41States/UTs wise numbers of Elected Women
Representatives at Panchayat Level:
Source: MoPR Compilation as on 27.03.2018munotes.in
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423.3.8 Debate on reservation for women in the Loksabha and
Legislative assemblies
The Constitution (One Hundred and Eighth Amendment) Bill, 2008
It seeks to reserve one -third of all seats for women in the Lok
Sabha and the state legislative assemblies. The allocation of
reserved seats shall be determined by such authority as
prescribed by Parliament.
One third of the total number of seats reserved for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall be reserved for women of
those groups in the Lok Sabha and the legislative assemblies.
Reserved seats may be allotted by rotation to differen t
constituencies in the state or union territory.
Reservation of seats for women shall cease to exist 15 years
after the commencement of this Amendment Act.
Arguments for Women Reservation in Parliament:
Constitutional rights: Although the Constitution has provided for
various provisions to ensure gender equality and women
emancipation, these do not match the ground situation. There
are more guarantees needed for political empowerment of
women which is provided for in this bill.
Redistribution of resou rces: Political reservation facilitates a
more equal distribution and access to resources for the weaker
sections of the society. A guaranteed representation of women
in Parliament would ensure equitable distribution of resources.
Previous experience: St udies have showed that the reservation
for women in panchayats ensures more investment in the public
goods closely linked to women’s concerns. They are better
equipped to address the issues related to women and facilitate
their development.
Gender equali ty: A sizeable proportion of women
representatives perceive an enhancement in their self -esteem,
confidence and decision -making ability.
Where women constitute half the population, the meagre
representation in Parliament is against the principle of fair and
equal representation of all sections of society.munotes.in
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43Arguments against Women Reservation in Parliament:
It is argued that the reservation of women in parliament would
perpetuate the inequality against them as they would not be
perceived to be competing o nm e r i t
When the seats are reserved for women, they are not usually
considered to fight for the unreserved general seats however
competent they may be.
It diverts the attention from the larger issues in politics like the
increasing criminalisation, nee df o re l e c t o r a lr e f o r m sa n dm o r e
transparency.
Rotation of reserved constituencies in every election may
reduce the incentive for an MP to work for his constituency as
he may be ineligible to seek re -election from that constituency.
3.3.9 Conclusion
Inclusive development is one of the most important
development goals of Indian government. This can be ensured only
by an equal participation of all stakeholders in the decision -making
process. Despite the difficulties and competition faced by women,
they h ave made massive inroads into business, science and all
other sectors of world economy. There is also an increased
participation of women in politics. Especially in India, in recent
years women have held one of the most important positions in
Indian govern ment. There has been rise of many important women
leaders in Indian politics like Sushma Swaraj, Pratibha Patil,
Mayawati, Mamata Banerjee, Jayalalitha, Nirmala Sitharaman,
among others. The 17thLok Sabha witnessed the largest proportion
of women Parliame ntarians. These demonstrate a positive scenario
and future potential for an increase women involvement in Indian
politics.
Questions:
1.What are the causes of low participation of women in
politics?
2.Discuss the history and nature of women’s participation in
politics.
3.Comment on Reservation of women in Loksabha and
Legislative Assemblies.
munotes.in
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44Unit -4
CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objective
4.1 Criminalisation of Politi cs
4.2 Internal threat to security (with reference to Naxalism and
Insurgency)
4.3 Global Terrorism
4.0OBJECTIVE:
The objective of the unit is to make stu dent understand
various challenges to National Security through criminalization of
politics. It also aims to comprehend various internal threats to
National Security such as naxalism and insurgency. It also aware
students to the concept of global terrorism .
4.1CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS
Introduction
Causes of criminalization of politics
Consequences of criminalization of politics
Legal framework
Way forward
4.1.1 Introduction:
Politics is the most important phenomenon in democracy.
India is a represen tative democracy and our legislators are elected
by the people through elections. Criminalisation of politics refers to
increasing participation of criminals in the electoral process and
their selection as the elected representatives of people. The Vohra
Committee Report in 1993 and the report of National Commission
to Review the Working of the Constitution in 2002 confirmed that
there is increasing trend of criminal’s participation in Indian politics.
4.1.2 Causes of criminalization of Politics:
Vote ban k Politics: Money and muscle power of criminals help
political parties gain votes. Since, in India electoral politics is
more about caste, ethnicity, religion and several other factors,munotes.in
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45candidates overcome the reputational loss due to criminal
charges and come out as victorious in elections.
Lack of adequate deterrence: Due to the low levels of
convictions of MPs and MLAs, and delays in trials political
parties are not deterred from giving tickets to criminals.
Lack of Intra -party democracy: Political par ties in India largely
lack intra -party democracy and the decisions on candidature are
largely taken by the elite leadership of the party. Thus, the
politicians with criminal records often escape the scrutiny by
local workers and organisation of the party.
Black money in elections: Electoral politics is largely dependent
on the money and the funding that it receives. Since candidates
with criminal records often possess greater wealth, they ensure
greater inflow in money, labour and other advantages that may
help a party in successful campaign, and also possess greater
‘winnability’
Civil society in India has failed to check criminalization of politics
due to resistance from establishment, prevalent use of money
and muscle power and lack of voter awareness
Lack of ethics and values in Indian politics further accentuates
the problem of criminalization. The political parties have been
reluctant in checking criminalization for own vested interests.
4.1.3 Consequences of criminalization of politics:
The presenc e of people with criminal backgrounds in politics
and law -making of the country has negative impacts on the
quality of democracy
Enormous amounts of illegal money flow into the electoral
process due to extensive links with the criminal underworld
Crimina lization of politics also has the consequence of
obstructing the process of justice and causing further delays in
trials.
Criminals entering politics further increases corruption in public
life and has an adverse negative impact on the state institutions
including the bureaucracy, the executive, the legislature and the
judiciary.
Criminalization of politics introduces a culture of violence in the
society and sets a bad precedence for the youth to follow.munotes.in
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464.1.4 Legal Framework:
Constitutional Provisions :
Article 102 states that a person shall be disqualified from being
chosen and from being a member of either House of Parliament if:
he holds an office of profit,
if he is of unsound mind and so declared by a competent
court,
if he is an undischarged inso lvent,
if he is not a citizen of India and if he is disqualified by any
other law made by Parliament
Corresponding provisions for members of State Legislative
Assemblies are found in Articles 173 and 191.
Representation of People’s Act, 1951:
Parliament through the RPA has prescribed further
qualifications and disqualifications for membership to Parliament
or to a Legislative Assembly.
Section 8 of the Act lists certain offence which, if a person is
convicted of any of them, disqualifies him from being elected or
continuing as, a Member of Parliament or Legislative Assembly.
A candidate to any National or State Assembly elections is
required to furnish an affidavit, in the shape of Form 26
appended to the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961. Failure to
furnis h this information, concealment of information or giving of
false information is an offence under Section125A of the RPA.
Law Commission in its 244th report on Electoral Reforms
titled “Electoral disqualifications” had put forward recommendations
on de -criminalization of politics. The main recommendations
include:
Expediting trials in relevant courts where a case is led against a
sitting MP/MLA and to conduct the trial on a day -to-day basis
with an outer limit of completing the trial in one year.
Retroa ctive application -from the date the proposed
amendments come into effect, all persons with criminal charges
(punishable by more than five years) pending on that date are
liable to be disqualifie d subject to certain safeguardsmunotes.in
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47The punishment for filing fal se affidavits under Section 125A be
increased to a minimum of two years, and that the alternate
clause for ne be removed.
Conviction under Section 125A should be made a ground for
disqualification under Section 8(1) of the RPA, 1951.
The filing of false affidavits should be made a corrupt practice
under Section 123 of the RPA.
Election Commission Recommendations: The Election
Commission in its “Proposed Electoral Reforms” (2016)
recommended that: Persons charged with cognisable offences
should be de -barred from contesting in the elections, at the stage
when the charges are framed by the competent court provided the
offence is punishable by imprisonment of at least 5 years, and the
case is led at least 6 months prior to the election in question
4.1.5 Way Forward:
The legal framework needs to be reformed to effectively curb
the steady flow of criminals into the political process.
The issues of the limited deterrence posed by disqualification
upon conviction, and the delays in trials of influential persons
that result in a subversion of the process of justice needs to be
urgently addressed.
The Election Commission must take adequate measures to
break the nexus between the criminals and the politicians. The
most important step in this direction would be chec king the use
of black money in party and election funding.
Intra -party democracy should be strengthened for better scrutiny
and selection of candidates.
A strong political will is required on the part of government to
decriminalize the entire political s ystem by enactment of
required legislations and taking adequate measures.
Politics can only be decriminalized through larger public
awareness and public participation in elections, politics and
governance. Further, electoral process should be made more
inclusive through wider participation from all sections of the
societymunotes.in
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48Questions:
1.What are the reasons of criminalization of politics?
2.What is the legal framework to check and prevent
criminalization of politics?
4.2 INTERNAL THREAT TO SEC URITY (WITH
REFERENCE TO NAXALISM AND INSURGENCY)
Introduction
Origin of Naxalism in India
Factors responsible for rise and spread of Naxalism
Aims, objectives and Modus Operandi of Naxalites
Effects of Naxalism
Government Strategy to fight Naxalism
Insurgency in North East
Insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir
4.2.1 Introduction
A state is at risk from four kinds of threats –Internal,
External, Internal -aided external and External -aided internal. India
faces a mix of all these threats. While internal security is the
security of a country within its borders, external security is country’s
security against external aggression i.e. aggression by other
countries. Among the major challenges India faces in terms of its
internal security, Naxalism and Left -Wing Extre mism are the most
pressing ones.
NAXALISM
4.2.2 Origin of Naxalism in India –
The term ‘Naxal’ originated from the name of village
Naxalbari of district Darjeeling in West Bengal. It originated in 1967
under the leadership of Charu Majumdar, Kanu San yal and Jangal
Santhal. In November 1967, left -wing extremist from all over
country founded ‘All India Coordination Committee’ in Kolkata (latermunotes.in
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49renamed as ‘All India Coordination Committee of Communist
Revolutionaries’.
In 1969, AICCCR founded revolutio nary party CPI Marxist -Leninist
(ML) based on the ideology of Mao Zedong, a Chinese
revolutionary leader. Soon the movement spread to other parts of
the country.
Extent of Naxalism –
The highly affected areas include –Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha and Maharashtra.
Other affected areas are –Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Madhya Pradesh
Phases of Naxalism –
1.Preparatory Phase –survey of new areas to identify issues on
which masses can be mobilised
2.Perspective Phase –demonstrations against g overnment
based on local public grievances
3.Guerrilla Phase –converting the public movement into violent
guerrilla warfare
4.Base Phase –establish their base and change guerrilla zone
into liberalised zone
5.Liberated Phase –establishment of people’s gover nment
4.2.3 Factors responsible for rise and spread of Naxalism –
1.Forest and Land related issues –
Evasion of land ceiling laws
Land acquisition without appropriate compensation and
rehabilitation
Disruption of the age old relation between the tribes and the
forests
2.Exploitation –tribal were exploited by the landlords, traders
and industrialist due to lack of literacy, awareness and
backwardness among them. They were exploited for land, forest
produce and other commercial purposes because of which t he
tribal shifted towards radical leftist ideology.
3.Lack of development –the tribal areas faced large
developmental deficit. There were rampant problems of
unemployment, poverty, lack of infrastructure, no education and
lack of health facilities. While the non -tribal regions saw rapid
development, the tribal regions were neglected.munotes.in
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504.Disconnect with mainstream society –due to lack of
education and backwardness, the tribal were dissociated from
the mainstream developing society. They felt neglected by th e
government as well as the society. The feeling of unity prevalent
in other parts of country had not penetrated to these regions
due to disconnect with the society.
5.Poor implementations of special laws –the government has
formulated various laws for the welfare of the forest dwellers
and tribal. However, these laws are plagued with loopholes that
prevent the benefit from reaching these beneficiaries and thus
leaving them deprived of welfare needs and support and
exposing them to exploitation.
6.Mismanage ment and corruption in government schemes –
over the years, government has implemented various schemes
for the welfare of the tribal, to educate them and to integrate
them with the society. But these schemes have failed to achieve
their desired objective d ue to poor management,
implementation and corruption.
7.Geographical terrain –Naxalism is mostly spread in the forest
area which makes it difficult for the administration and police to
fight it. But it helps Naxalites to fight against the police by the
method of guerrilla warfare.
4.2.4 Aims, objectives and Modus Operandi of Naxalites
Aim –
To destroy the legitimacy of the state.
To create mass base with certain degree of acceptability
Objective –
Establish ‘The India People’s Democratic Federal Re public’
Modus Operandi –
Attack police and their establishment
Attack infrastructure like rail and road transport, power
transmission
Oppose execution of development work
Front organisations and civil society groups on issues like land
acquisition, la nd reforms, displacement, etc. and acquire
support of intellectual elitemunotes.in
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514.2.5 Effects –
Positive Impacts –
1.Protection from eviction and forest officers: As per the
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980, the reserved forests could not
be utilized without the prior permission of the central
government. This led to eviction of many adivasis from forests
and abuse by the forest officials. Naxalites protected the
adivasis from eviction and exploitation by forest officers
2.Support to the victims of displacemen t:Often the displaced
forest dwellers face the ire of administration. They tend to re -
settle in same forest region which is prohibited. Naxalites have
helped these victims. Example, due to an irrigation project in
Orissa, many adivasis where displaced and migrated to Andhra
Pradesh. They would have been evicted from Andhra as well
save for the Naxalite intervention.
3.Infrastructure: The Naxalites have rendered support to many
development projects like roads, school buildings around their
regions. But at t he same time they have opposed them in fear of
police and paramilitary forces interference in their regional
affairs.
4.Bonded Labour: Naxalites have successfully waged against
bonded labour or ‘begar’. The efforts of government coupled
with Naxalites effo rts have led to bonded labour to be nearly
abolished
5.Wages: the Naxalites have ensured the payment of decent
wages to the labourers. Though, the government had provided
for minimum wages through the Minimum Wages Act, the
legislation was made a reality b y the Naxalites.
6.Landlordism: Even after many years of Independence and
many land reforms being initiated, landlordism was rampant in
many parts of India and is prevalent even today in some areas.
Naxals reallocated the land from the rich landlords to th e
peasants who cultivated. This reallocation helped the peasants
improve their situation
7.Social sector development: the threat of Naxals has ensured
the proper attendance of teachers, doctors, etc. in regions of
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Chattisgar h. This factor has
led to better social development and catering to the needs of the
tribal who were hitherto not given the requisite attention.munotes.in
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52Negative Impact –
1.On GDP growth –all Naxalism affected states excluding
Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra ha ve low GDP growth. The
threat of Naxalism prevents industrialisation in these regions,
thus affecting production as well as income.
2.On tax revenues –the parallel government run by Naxals
prevents the governing agencies from appropriation of taxes
result ing in low tax revenues.
3.Expenditure on defence –the lower domestic investment is
coupled with heavy expenditure on defence. This has a bearing
on the investments and expenditure that could have been made
on education and health sector.
4.On trade flows and foreign direct investment inflows –the
Naxal violence, extortion and lack of good transportation facility
affect the foreign direct investments and trade results in lower
imports, thereby affecting the economy.
5.On tourism –lower tourist attraction and lower tourism market
share affect the income potential of the region.
6.Other impacts –
Lower job availability
Less investment on agriculture
Effect on education and other opportunities
Range of acts of violence harming the masses. Incidents of
burning schools, trains and rail lines in turn hurt the masses
instead of creating conditions for their development
The disruption of elections hampers the right of people to
choose their leaders
In fight against the security forces and the Naxalites, the
brunt is borne by the villagers and tribal
4.2.6 Government Strategy to fight Naxalism –
As per the Indian Constitution, ‘Police’ and ‘Public Order’ are
state subjects, thus the maintenance of law and order lies mainly in
the domain of State Governments . But as expressed by the former
Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, Naxalism is the most
significant threat to internal security; the successive Central
Governments closely monitor the situation and supplement the
efforts of State Governments in several wa ys. These include –
Providing Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and
Commando Battalions for Resolution Action (CoBRA)
Modernisation and upgradation of State police under scheme
‘Modernisation of Police Forces’munotes.in
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53Reimbursement of security related expendi ture
Training of state police
Sharing of intelligence
Facilitate inter -state coordination, community policing and civic
action
A National Policy and Action Plan put in place –adopting a
multipronged strategy in areas of security, development, rights
and entitlements of tribal, etc.
Schemes for affected states –
1.Special Central Assistance (SCA) –for 30 most LWE affected
districts. It was launched in 2017 by government under the
umbrella scheme of Modernisation of Police Forces. Objective
of this sch eme is to fill the critical gaps in public infrastructure
and services
2.Scheme of Fortified Police Stations
3.Assistance to Central Agencies for LWE Management Scheme
–assistance is provided to Central Agencies like CAPF for
strengthening of infrastructure
4.Road Requirement Plan -I( R R P –I) for LWE affected areas –
scheme implemented by the Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways for improving road connectivity in affected areas
5.Civic Action Programme (CAP) –it aims to bridge the gap
between Security Forces and local people through personal
interaction. The funds are given to CAPF deployed in affected
areas for conducting various civic activities for welfare of the
people in those areas
6.Aspirational Districts Programme –the Ministry of Home Affairs
monitors the Aspirational districts programme in 35 affected
districts.
4.2.7 INSURGENCY IN NORTH EAST –
The Northeast region of India comprises of seven states –
Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Tripura
and Sikkim. The region holds key impo rtance for India in terms of
resources, cultural diversity, natural heritage and biodiversity. With
all the states having international borders, sharing borders with
China, Bangladesh and Myanmar, these states are hold strategic
importance in terms of secu rity, internal and external and it is held
as one of the key aspects in India’s foreign policy and diplomacy
with neighbouring countries.
North Eastern India has been witnessing the problem of
insurgency for the past half century. Insurgency is an armedmunotes.in
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54rebellion against a constituted authority. Initially the states facing
insurgency included Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Tripura during
the 1950s and 1960s which started decreasing during the 1990s.
The demand of the insurgents has varied from greater auton omy, a
separate state to some extreme demands like complete
independence.
The reasons for insurgency can be attributed to many
factors. Historically, the regions were loosely administered by the
British and they remained largely detached from the mainlan dI n d i a .
The extent of integration that climaxed during the freedom
movement and furthered during independence, was not
supplemented by the same level of integration with the north east.
After independence, there were tension between the central
government and the states. These tensions were intensified due to
the surge of immigrants into these states. The geographical
separation and lack of connectivity for a long period of time
hampered the integration of these states with mainland India.
These states wer e largely neglected for the larger part of post -
independent period. The lack of funds, developmental assistance
and continued deprivation in face of the increasing development of
the other regions of the country deepened the already existing
problems. The region is subjected to various environmental
extremities. Further the intense biodiversity, forest resources while
hampering access to the region, has also hampered its
development.
There is a presence of many insurgent groups in these regions.
Nagalan d–the state, earlier a part of Assam was the first one to
witness the rise of militancy. The demand was for a greater
autonomy. It was carved out as a separate state from Assam in
1963 and became the 16thstate of Union of India. There is National
Social ist Council of Nagaland (N.S.C.N.) two factions: Isak -Muivah
faction (N.S.C.N. -I.M.) and the Khaplang faction (N.S.C.N. -K.)
present in Nagaland. The state exhibits a rich ethnic, religious and
tribal diversity. The insurgency in Nagaland is considered to have
inspired insurgency in many other ethnic groups in the region.
Mizoram –the state was part of Assam before it attained statehood
in 1987. The rise of insurgency in the state was a response to the
neglect of the central government to the demands of the state. Lack
of development, employment opportunities and education has
deprived the people and deepened the grievances. In Mizoram
there is Mizo National Front (M.N.F.).
Assam -The United Liberation Front of Assam (U.L.F.A.), Bodo
Liberation Tigers, National Democratic Front of Bodoland
(N.D.F.B.) and the United People’s Democratic Solidarity (U.P.D.S.)munotes.in
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55have presence in Assam. It has witnessed militancy from various
groups for many years. There has been a demand of creation of
separate state –Bodola nd by carving out areas from Assam and
West Bengal.
Manipur –It was accorded statehood in 1972 while the struggle of
independence in the region has been pursued since 1964. The
groups have a socialist inclination. Their demands are due to the
neglect by the central government and lack of development in the
region. The strong military presence and the overriding powers
granted to them as a result of the Armed Forces Special Powers
Act (AFSPA) have added to the discontent of the people. The
United National Liberation Front is present in Manipur.
Meghalaya -the Garo National Liberation Army (GNLA) and
Hynniewtrep National Liberation Council (HNLC) are having a
presence in this state. It was carved out of Assam owing to the
unique needs of the tribes of thi s region, the Garo, the Khasi and
the Jaintias.
Arunachal Pradesh –the state has more or less remained peaceful
for most part of the history. But due to its proximity to Myanmar and
Nagaland makes it prone to insurgency. The history of indigenous
insurg ency movement was the rise of the Arunachal Dragon Force
(ADF), which later became East India Liberation Front (EALF) in
2001
Tripura –the insurgency in the state has been due to immigration
in the state and the reduction of the indigenous groups in the state
to a minority status. There were ethnic tensions with the Bengali
immigrants post the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation war. Militant
groups were formed that demanded restoration of tribal rights from
the Bengali population.
In the recent years, realising the strategic, economic,
political and environmental importance of the region, the
successive governments have approached the north east region
with a renewed focus. There are many steps taken by the
governments and the civil society for a greater inclusi on of the
region with rest of the country. A Ministry of Development of North
Eastern Region (DoNER) responsible for the matters relating to the
planning, execution and monitoring of development schemes and
projects in the North Eastern Region has been set up. Restrictions
are imposed on the entry of outsiders to maintain the original
identity of indigenous people of Mizoram, Nagaland and Arunachal
Pradesh entry of outsiders are not allowed without Inner Line
Permit (ILP). The active steps taken by the gove rnment has
significant curbed the violence in north east. But the groups
continue to be present and carry out illicit activities often leading tomunotes.in
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56law and order crisis in these regions. While corrective steps have
been taken, these steps need to be intensif ied and effectively
implemented.
4.2.8 INSURGENCY IN JAMMU AND KASHMIR –
The roots of insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir lie in the
post-Independence Partition of India. Kashmir, a princely state,
initially decided to remain an independent kingdom, neither
acceding to India nor to Pakistan. The invasion into Kashmir by the
Pakistani troops urged the ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh to
seek India’s help and consequently signed the Instrument of
Accession with India. The president subsequently issued
constitution order extending the Union constitution to the state with
some exception. The state of Jammu and Kashmir was granted a
special status by the enactment of Article 370.
One part of Kashmir at the time of accession came to be
occupied by India and the other part by Pakistan. Despite UN
contravention, there has been no conciliation between the two
countries over this dispute. In later years of post -independence
period, during early 1990s there were increasing anti -India
separatist tendency in the sta te.
Role of Pakistan: the Pakistan -occupied -Kashmir (PoK) has
been the base of many terrorist camps which are also supported by
the Pakistan Government and military. Pakistan sponsored -
terrorism in India is a part of Pakistan’s strategy of bleeding India
by thousand cuts. While it keeps nuclear threat as a means of
deterrence on the front, it pursues terrorism at the back to arrest
India’s attention in the resolution of this problem and endanger its
unification.
The problem of insurgency in Kashmir is m ultipronged.
There is involvement of Pakistan, there is presence of separatist
forces in the state, there is lack of integration of the state with rest
of India, lack of development and opportunities and many other
factors. There has been a shift in govern ment’s strategy for
resolving the insurgency problem in India. Firstly, there is a shift in
the pattern of diplomacy of India with respect to Pakistan with India
adopting many hardliners in respect of terrorism. India has engaged
with many countries on int ernational platform for their support in
India’s fight against Pakistan sponsored terrorism. Secondly,
counter strikes are increasingly being conducted by the Indian
armed forces in Pakistan -occupied -kashmir territories in retaliation
to the terrorist atta cks in India to stop such attacks by destroying
their base camps.
Recently in an historic step, the President has passed a
presidential order repealing the Article 370 that grants specialmunotes.in
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57status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Moreover, the
Parliament has passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Bill
2019 which has bifurcated the state of Jammu and Kashmir into
two union territories –the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir
and the union territory of Ladakh. The removal of Article 35A (that
gave sp ecial rights to the permanent residents of the state over
others in matters like property rights) has paved way for greater
integration of the state with rest of India. With removal of special
status to the state, the scheme, laws and development programs of
the central government shall now be extended to the state and can
prove to be the stimulus for robust development that the state is in
need of.
Questions:
1.What are the factors responsible for the rise of Naxalism?
2.What are the positive and negative ef fects of Naxalism?
3.Critically examine the insurgency in North East.
4.Examine the insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir.
4.3GLOBAL TERRORISM
Changing nature of global terrorism in the era of
globalization and India’s response, organization having impact
in India.
Definition
Changing nature of global terrorism
Factors responsible for origin of terrorism in India
Organization having Impact on India
Institutional framework to tackle terrorism
Legal framework to tackle terrorism
Difference between te rrorism, insurgency and naxalism.
4.3.1 Definition of Terrorism –
It may be defined as the planned, organised and systematic
use of violence as a means of coercion for political, religious
or ideological purposes.munotes.in
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58It is a state of terror, panic and fe ar psychosis, created by an
individual or a group of people in order to force, coerce or
blackmail the authorities, using violent methods to accept
their demand or to attain political, religious or ideological
goals
4.3.2 Changing nature of global terror ism–
Terrorism is a global phenomenon. There has been a
general ambivalence regarding what actually constitutes terrorism.
There have been many instances when the states have
encouraged various criminal acts in another state. The difficulty in
defining what constitutes terrorism has hampered the international
community from coming together in fight against terrorism.
The coming of globalisation has made the world a global
village. There is exchange of goods, services, people, ideas,
culture and many o ther elements. However, while such elements
are mutually beneficial for the countries, there are many non -
desirable elements that have propagated across borders of the
countries. One such element is terrorism. Often terrorism in one
country has ideological and financial source in another country. The
absence of borders is not only in trade of goods and services but
also in spread of terrorism.
The increasing technological advancement has helped the
countries to gain new heights of development. Research a nd
development in new technologies in one country is globalised and
has benefitted billions of people. However, this advancement of
technology has also percolated to terrorist organisations which are
now stronger than ever.
The increasing use of informa tion technology, social media,
mobile phones have connected people in two corners of the world.
But it is also used to spread terrorism by radicalising the youth.
Terrorism can be classified into two categories –
1.Terrorism by External State Actors –when a government
indulges into terrorism against the people of its own country or
against people of another country. Support to terrorism can be
by the means of financial funding, arms supply, training, etc.
The terrorism in Kashmir is the due to Pakistan s tate policy and
ISI.
2.Terrorism by Non -state Actors –individuals or organisations
that indulge in act of terrorism and are not associated with or
financed by any government. Organisations in India like
Lashkar -e-Taiba and Indian Mujahideen (IM) claim to b en o n -munotes.in
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59state actors. However, the possibility of association with state
actors cannot be completely ruled out.
Terrorist attacks in India –
Bomb blast in Mumbai in 1993
Attack on Red Fort in 2000
Attack on Jammu and Kashmir Assembly in 2001
Attack on In dian Parliament in 2001 by Lashkar -e-Taiba and
Jaish -e-Mohammed
Attack in Mumbai in 2008
German Bakery, Pune Bomb blast 2010
Pathankot attack in 2016
Uri attack by Jaish -e-Mohammad in 2016
Attack on Amarnath Yatra in 2017
Pulwama attack in 2019 by Jais h-e-Mohammad
4.3.3 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ORIGIN OF TERRORISM
IN INDIA
India's borders with most neighbours are porous (not protected)
which are extremely easy to cross.
Complexity makes these borders difficult to protect by security
forces.
Methods o f security ambivalent and lack of strategic thinking.
Complex relations of India with neighbours.
Support to terrorism by internal forces due to reasons like
identical ethnic affiliation, monetary requirements, fear of life,
lack of education, dissatisfact ion from present governance
system etc.
Long sea border makes India vulnerable to host of problems like
piracy.
Globalisation and social media has made propagation of ideas,
people and extremism easy and rapid.
Lack of international cooperation to put up an anti -terrorism front
and undertake anti -terrorist actions.
4.3.4 ORGANISATIONS HAVING IMPACT ON INDIA
Organisations in India –
1.Indian Mujahideen (IM) –It is an Islamist terrorist group based
in India. It has taken responsibility of many blasts i nI n d i a .
Police investigation has revealed it to be a front of Lashkar -e-
Taiba. It was declared a terrorist organisation by Indian
government in 2010. It has also been declared as terrorist
organisation by New Zealand, United Kingdom and Unitedmunotes.in
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60States of A merica. Its aim is to create an ‘Islamic Caliphate’
across South Asia.
2.Hizbul Mujahideen –the group was founded in 1989 and is
based in Kashmir
3.Student Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) –the organisation
was formed in 1977 and is an Islamic student orga nisation. It
was originally formed with the aim of liberating India from the
western cultural influences and to nurture living among Muslims
as per the Islamic code of conduct. After the violence between
Hindus and Muslims in 1980s and 1990s it turned more radical.
4.AQIS (Al -Qaedain Indian Subcontinent) –it is an affiliate of
Al-Qaeda created in 2014. It is banned by the United Nations. It
aims to draw together the jihadists from India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Myanmar
International Organisations –
Al Qaeda –
Founded in 1988, Al Qaeda is a militant Sunni Islamist multi -
national organization. It was founded in 1988 during the Afghan -
Soviet. It has been declared a terrorist organisation by the United
Nations Security Council, North Atlantic Treaty Organi zation
(NATO), India, United States of America, the European Union and
various other countries. They are responsible for many terrorist
attacks like September 11 attacks, and United States Embassy
attacks among others. In the ‘War on Terror’ launched by th e
United States government, led to deaths of major leaders of Al -
Qaeda including Osama Bin Laden.
Lashkar -e-Taiba –
Operating mainly from Pakistan and Pak -Occupied -Kashmir
(PoK) it is one of the largest and most active organisations in South
Asia. It w as founded in 1990 by Hafez Saeed. They are responsible
for many terrorist attacks in India including the attack on Indian
Parliament, attack on Akshardham Temple and blasts in Mumbai in
2006 and 2008.
Jaish -e-Mohammad –
A Pakistan -based terrorist orga nisation aiming to undermine
the Indian control over the Indian administered Kashmir. It operates
through attacks on government and security with the support of
Pakistan’s ISI in the form of funding, training and strategy of
conduct. It was founded by Maso od Azhar who was fighting under
Harkat -ul-Mujahideen and has been linked to Al Qaeda. After
founding Jaish -e-Mohammad in 2000, it has carried some of the
most critical attacks on India. These include the attack on Indianmunotes.in
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61Parliament in 2001, Pathankot airba se attack in 2016, Pulwama
attack on CRPF personnel of Indian army in 2019.
Harkat -ul-Jihad -al-Islami (HUJI) –
It is based in Pakistan and Bangladesh. It began
operations in Afghanistan after the withdrawal of Soviet Union from
the country . It has taken the responsibility of Banaras bombing in
2006 and Delhi Bombing in 2011.
Islamic State (IS)
The group was founded by Abu Musab al -Zarqawi, a
Jordanian radical in 1999. In 2004, al -Zarqawi swore loyalty to
Osama bin Laden. Severa l insurgent groups and factions merged in
2006 to form the Islamic State of Iraq. Later having expanded their
roots to Syria, the group renamed itself as ‘Islamic State of Iraq and
Syria’. Their ideology is based on the return of golden age of Islam
and th eir aim is to establish a Caliphate state based on the Sharia
law and all Muslim are required to pledge allegiance to it.
Radicalisation of Indian youth and their recruitment is a threat to
India’s national security and sovereignty.
4.3.5 INSTITUTIONAL F RAMEWORK TO TACKLE TERRORISM:
National Investigation Agency (NIA) -central agency
established by Government after the 2008 Mumbai attacks to
combat terror in India. It deals with terror activities across states
without prior permission by states. It is a statutory body that
came into existence with the enactment of the National
Investigation Agency Act 2008 by the Parliament of India on 31
December 2008.
NATGRID (National Intelligence Grid) –an intelligence
sharing network that connects database of core s security
agencies in India. It hosts information from government
databases. The Mumbai 2008 attacks exposed weakness in
India’s intelligence and NATGRID was established to address it.
National Security Guard (NSG) -a Special Forces unit under
the Mini stry of Home Affairs (MHA). New NSG hubs were
opened in Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Hyderabad to ensure
faster and efficient reaction to crisis situations.
Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS) -is a special police force raised
to combat terror. It is set up in s everal states -Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar.
4.3.6 LEGAL FRAMEWORK TO TACKLE TERRORISM:
Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act :I tw a s
anti-terrorism law which was in force between 1985 and 1995munotes.in
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62under th e background of the Punjab insurgency and was
applied to whole of India.
Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002 (POTA): It was an Act
passed by the Parliament in 2002 to strengthen anti -terrorism
operations. It replaced the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities
(Prevention) Act. The Act was repealed in 2004 by government.
National Security Act, 1980: It is a stringent law that allows
preventive detention for months, if authorities are satisfied that a
person is a threat to national security or law and order.
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 :I ti sa i m e da t
effective prevention of unlawful activities associations in India.
Its main objective is deal with activities directed against the
integrity and sovereignty of India
WHAT MORE IS NEEDED
There needs to be a strong political consensus in country that
national interest stands supreme. Anything that is detrimental to
national interest must be addressed by government,
intelligentsia and the civil society together.
We need stringent laws against terrori sm.
The proceedings deciding on terrorism should be speedy. For
this, there can be fast track courts established.
There are changes needed in the criminal justice system to deal
with the cases related to terrorism within months of the arrests
while the memory is still fresh in the minds of the people.
The state police need to be empowered. There should be
enhanced training and providing modern equipments for
investigation, surveillance and operations.
There needs to be proper check imposed on the exte nt and
nature of use of social media.
The general public needs to be educated about the evils of
terrorism and how the neighbouring countries use it to weaken
our country.
We need to promote harmony among the various religions,
sects and sub -sects of o ur society and pose a untied stand
against such divisive forces.munotes.in
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634.3.7 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TERRORISM, INSURGENCY
AND NAXALISM
Terrorism is planned and systematic use of violence as a means
of coercion for political, religious or ideological purpose.
Insurgency is an act of rebellion and armed struggle by a
section of society with intent of overthrowing the government.
Naxalism refers to use of violence to destabilise the state
through communist guerrilla warfare. In India it is mostly based
on Maois ti d e o l o g y .T h e yi n t e n dt oo v e r t h r o wt h eg o v e r n m e n t
and install people’s government.
Questions:
1.Discuss global terrorism and its impact on India.
2.Comment on the activities of terrorist organization in India.
3.What are the institutional and legal framework sto tackle
terrorism?
4.What are the factor sresponsible for the origin of terrorism in
India?
munotes.in